Electric+Wheelchair,+The

=The Electric Wheelchair =

__** Introduction **__ The electric wheelchair is a seated, wheeled mobility device used by physically disabled persons as a means of everyday transportation. It is controlled by a joystick or mouthpiece which sends signals to electric motors that provide propulsion. Freedom is defined as the state of being free or at liberty rather than in confinement or under physical restraint. For 1.7 million Americans [1 ], and many others across the world, this freedom is provided through the use of an electric wheelchair. The invention of the electric wheelchair in the mid-20th century was shaped largely by the number of disabled veterans returning from World War II [2], while the electric wheelchair’s functionality and disposition were guided by advocacy groups and law makers throughout the second half of the 20th century. The evolution of the wheelchair has always been driven by the desire to increase mobility and usability and introduce enhanced freedoms to the disabled. This desire is still creating innovations today. ==   2. Law, Environment, and the Usability and Evolution of the Electric Wheelchair 2.1 - The Architectural Barriers Act 2.2 - The Disability Rights Movement and United States Law (1970-1989) 2.3 - The Americans with Disabilities Act 3. Conclusions 4. Current Research and Recent Developments 4.1 - Maneuverability 4.2 - Usability 4.3 - Social Equality 5. Bibliography ||  ||
 * Contents**
 * 1. The History of Wheelchair Technology and the Rise of the Electric Wheelchair

__ Wheelchair technology has been documented to exist in some form as early as the 16th century. [3] Though this article specifically addresses electric wheelchairs, a brief discussion about the history of its predecessor should act to define the foundations of the electric wheelchair and the scope of its impact. This predecessor, which will now be referred to as the standard wheelchair, is a wheeled device powered by the user, who is unable to walk but can provide motion through the use of upper body strength. This type wheelchair represents the first practical device to introduce freedom of movement to disabled persons. Throughout history, the standard wheelchair also provided mobility to those with more severe disability, but required the assistance of an aide to provide motion. It is in this aspect that the electric wheelchair defines itself by providing those with severe disability the same freedom of independent movement that the standard wheelchair provides to those with unrestricted use of their upper body. The electronic wheelchair provides the freedom of movement to those with more severe disabilities which limit upper body strength, such as quadriplegia and MS. Prior to the electric wheelchair; these individuals had a bed sentence or required the aid of others in order to go from place to place.
 * The History of Wheelchair Technology and the Rise of the Electric Wheelchair **__

It was the limitations of the standard wheelchair which sparked the invention of the electric wheelchair. The electric wheelchair was needed to provide mobility to the growing number of individuals unable to use standard wheelchairs. This growing number of individuals came largely from a single group: veterans. World War II had just ended, and it would be war that was responsible for the invention of a revolutionary medical device. The electric wheelchair was invented by George Klien in 1950, just after the war. [2] The increases in technology and innovations during the war era also played a part in its development, as the control systems and efficient electric motors needed to create the electric wheelchair were developed heavily during this time.

While the invention of the wheelchair itself proved to be a great innovation, its full potential and usability were not realized until advocacy groups and lawmakers developed legislation to improve the environment in which the wheelchair was used in. And, as the electric wheelchair itself saw its birth out of policy and war, so would its evolution be driven by the changes in the world. The invention of the motorized wheelchair in 1950 meant new freedoms for many disabled veterans; however the chair faced serious complications in terms of usability. First, Sidewalks were not usable, as curbs prevented the chair from navigating across streets. Second, the vast majority of buildings were inaccessible. Entrances to buildings usually involved going up a few stairs, and ramps were not present in the mid 20th century. Navigating between floors of any building was impossible without assistance up the staircase. Elevators were a rarity at this time, the first one ever being installed just before the turn of the century. Third, Public transportation was not accommodating to wheelchair access. Fourth, there was no control over accessibility in the workplace, heavily limiting employment opportunities. Education was also severely limited, with equal access not a priority. Just one in five disabled children was educated. [1] The first law to specifically address those with physical disabilities, The Architectural Barriers Act of 1968, took place just as the disability rights movement was getting underway. The Architectural Barriers Act of 1968 declared that all “facilities designed, built, altered, or leased with funds supplied by the United States Federal Government be accessible to the public.” Uniform standards were put in place and monitored by four federal agencies in order to ensure that new building upheld this standard and were accessible to those in wheelchairs. This law ensured that the disabled could enter all newly constructed buildings which received federal funding, and began the movement toward accessibility.
 * __Law, Environment, and the Usability and Evolution of the Electric Wheelchair __**
 * The Architectural Barriers Act [4] **

The Architectural Barriers Act did leave some improvements to be made. The law did not cover standards for within the building nor the activities inside. The law also was not retroactive, and did not require existing government funded facilities to make modifications.

Following the same progression as the invention of the wheelchair itself, the passing of this act in the middle of the Vietnam War is no coincidence. With the number of disabled veterans climbing once again, the government needed to respond to the growing number of voices advocating equal access. The electric wheelchair itself had evolved slightly. The first wheelchair had been erratic in its movement, with its simple on-off switches controlling the motors. The technology continued to develop throughout the beginning of the war, and joysticks provided a more intuitive means of control as early as 1963. This Act also follows the first Paralympics held in Tokyo a year later, which built public awareness. The disability rights movement began in the 1970s just a decade after the civil rights movement. Several advocacy groups were formed in the early 70s, and they were very successful in advancing legislature. Until the 1970s there was never a large social movement around equal rights and access for the disabled. [5] The Rehabilitation Act of 1973, when it was enacted, required non-discrimination and affirmative action in employment of the disabled. While this act addressed accessibility, it did not specifically address the civil rights of disabled persons. It was the desire for legislature on civil rights that drove the social movement to begin.
 * The Disability Rights Movement and United States Law (1970-1989) **

The American Coalition of Citizens with Disabilities (ACCD) was founded in the mid-1970s and was responsible for the amendment to the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. [5] Frank Bowe, the ACCD Director, organized a nation-wide sit-in of government buildings in 1977, just two years after Bob Hall, and athlete from Mississippi, became the first person to complete a marathon in a wheelchair. The result of this sit-in was the addition of Section 504 to the Rehabilitation Act, extending civil rights and also creating new ones. The Center for Independent Living in California became another large social group, organizing protests and gaining ground in legislature in California. [5] In a push for equal education, both groups supported the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, later renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act in 1990, which ensured equal access for disabled persons in all federally funded schools. [4]

Between the 1970s and the 1990s, the disability rights movement grew, and the American Association of People with Disabilities was formed. This group helped many bills become law. In 1984 accessibility was required at voting stations across the country via the Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act, and in 1986 the Air Carrier Access Act required airlines to accommodate the physically disabled. Also, the Fair Housing Act, originally passed in 1968, was amended in 1988 to include restriction of housing discrimination based on disability. [4] Also in this time period, wheelchair technology saw an enormous boom. Materials were becoming stronger and lighter, making wheelchair chassis more maneuverable while saving battery power. The increase in electronic technology led to microprocessors in wheelchair circuitry, which allowed infinite control customizations to accommodate individual disabilities.

The Americans with Disabilities Act, passed in 1990 and amended several times since, is the most important disabilities act ever passed. It was broken down into four main titles with a fifth miscellaneous title. // Title I // ensured equal opportunity employment for disabled persons and covered hiring, training, and working conditions. // Title II // covered Public Entities, and declared that no discrimination from any public entities at the federal and state level could take place. Accessibility and accommodations were required on all public facilities. Public transportation was required to accommodate persons with disabilities. Sidewalks must be equipped with curb cuts to accommodate wheelchairs. // Title III // covered public accommodations as well as commercial facilities accommodations. This is significant because it was retroactive, requiring all new and existing facilities to accommodate access. // Title IV // covered Telecommunications, with increased rights to the seeing and hearing impaired.
 * The Americans with Disabilities Act [6] **

Without the advancement of legislature, the electric wheelchair would have been unfeasible due to environmental limitations. As world events shape the people around them, those people create solutions and fight for change. The number of disabled persons grew significantly during wartime, and their voices gave strength to the fight for equal access and equal rights. Designs continued to improve in the ‘90s. The introduction of chair tilt, recline, and elevation adds relief to the user and prevents blood pooling and clotting. These innovations also allow easier transfer into and out of the chair. Mobility evolutions such as the mid-wheel design add better control and maneuverability in tight areas. Advocacy groups and passionate individuals and inventors continue to look for ways to improve mobility and quality of life for the disabled. In the 40 years from the invention of the electric wheelchair to the passing of the ADA, the disabled found the world opened up to them once more, and their freedom restored.
 * __ Conclusions __**

 Developments continue to be made in wheelchair technology to increase maneuverability, usability, and social equality. All of these inventions strive to accomplish the same goal as the invention of the electric wheelchair: to provide an unparalleled level of mobility and usability, and give freedom to those who do not have the ability to walk. Recent developments and research on omni-directional wheelchairs aim to eliminate the inelegant motion of wheelchairs, such as the necessity to turn, drive, turn, and drive once more in order to step to the side of a person walking by. In the early 21st century a group of high school students from Upper Darby, PA developed a market-viable, fully-functioning omni-directional wheelchair [7]. Usability ** Degenerative diseases and quadriplegia limit an individual’s ability to control a wheelchair with the conventional joystick. Other control methods such as straws (sip and puff controllers) are clumsy and often limit the user’s ability to control the wheelchair precisely. Developments are being made in the area of neurological control, which would allow a disabled person to use thought or slight muscle control to direct a wheelchair. [8] Social Equality ** A problem expressed by many disabled persons is the inability to talk at eye-level without having the other individual sit. Over the past five years, standing wheelchairs offer users the ability to become fully upright, making conversation and other tasks which require standing a possibility. [9]
 * __Current Research and Recent Developments __**
 * Maneuverability **

__** Bibliography **__ 

[7] Crane, Alexander D. "Lemelson-MIT InvenTeams: Omni-directional Wheelchair." Lemelson-MIT InvenTeams. MIT. 14 June 2006. __Youtube__. 24 Feb. 2007. 17 Apr. 2009 .  <span style="line-height: 115%; font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [6] <span style="font-size: 10.8pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Americans with Disabilities Act. 1990. __The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission__. 23 Feb. 2009. 10 May 2009 <http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/ada.html>. <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [4] United States. U.S. Department of Justice. __A Guide to Disability Rights Laws__. __Americans with__ Disabilities __Act__. Sept. 2005. 10 May 2009 <http://www.ada.gov/cguide.htm#anchor65610>.
 * Primary Sources **

[5] <span style="font-size: 10.8pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Johnson, Roberta Ann. "Mobilizing the Disabled." __Waves of Protest__. By Jo Freeman and Victoria Johnson. New York: Longman, 1983. 47-64. __Google Books__. 10 May 2009 <http://books.google.com/ books?id=BO6D9qdVs3sC&pg=PA25&lpg=PA25&dq=Roberta+Ann+ Johnson,+%22Mobilizing+the+Disabled,%22+in+Social+Movements+of+the+Sixties+and+Seventies,&source=bl&ots=x0U_06zoA8&sig=l9OorYBMeABJdpeHpm1rODOs-YM&hl=en&ei=FMwNS pvgE466M8nG7bkG&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#PPR5,M1>. <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [1] <span style="font-size: 10.8pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Kaye, H Stephen, Taewoon Kang, and Mitchell P. LaPlante. __Wheelchair Use in the United States__. Disability Statistics Center, Institute for Health & Aging, School of Nursing, University of California, 2002. __UCSF - Disability Statistics__. May 2002. ED grant #H122B980045. 17 Apr. 2009 <http://dsc.ucsf.edu/view_pdf.php?pdf_id=21>. <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
 * Secondary Sources **

<span style="line-height: 115%; font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">** References ** "American Coalition of Citizens with Disabilities." __Wikipedia__. 29 Nov. 2007. 10 May 2009 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Coalition_of_Citizens_with_Disabilities>. Bourgeois-Doyle, Richard I. __George J. Klein: The Great Inventor__. N.p.: NRC Research Press, 2004. Denise Venuti Free. “HEAR UNIQUE CONSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVES DURING //WE THE PEOPLE STORIES// AT THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION CENTER.” August, 2006. National Constitution Center. Web. <http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=custom&ct=res&cd=2&url=http%3A% 2F%2Fconstitutioncenter.org%2FFiles%2Fwethepeople.pdf&ei=WZHoSZLMM5HoMPDBleEF&usg=AFQjCNEEjLEg1zdaDCqFmrpTrz9EqAioGQ>. [2] <span style="font-size: 10.8pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Fararo, Jannet. "A Brief History of the Electric Wheelchair." __Wheelchair-deals__. 8 Apr. 2009. 17 Apr. 2009 < http://ezinearticles.com/?All-About-the-Electric-Wheelchair&id=2196732>. <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">"Joystick." __Wikipedia__. 27 Apr. 2009. 10 May 2009 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joystick>. [8] <span style="font-size: 10.8pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">"Neural-Directed Wheelchair." __Lemelson-MIT Inventeams__. 10 May 2009 <http://web.mit.edu/inventeams/teams/2006/tj.html>. <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[9] <span style="font-size: 10.8pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">"Standing Wheelchairs." __The Standing Company__. 10 May 2009 <http://www.thestandingcompany.com/>. <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[3] <span style="font-size: 10.8pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> "The History of Wheelchairs." __Wheelchair Net__. 2 Mar. 2006. 10 May 2009 <http://www.wheelchairnet.org/WCN_ProdServ/Docs/WCHistory.html>. <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="line-height: 115%; font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">