Brodie+Helmet

“My food bowl saved my life!” declared a French soldier in 1914 to General Adrian of the French Army. It is believed that the “first metal head protectors provided in World War I were the direct result of a French Army soldier carrying his metal food bowl under his cloth cap, which helped deflect a rifle bullet and a lethal head wound” (Global). Most militaries wore a type of hat/cap for protection mainly from the elements – sun, cold, and precipitation. With the advent of the modernized weaponry of World War I (WWI), the militaries saw a significant increase in lethal head injuries. The modernized weaponry and trench warfare caused soldiers to sustain lethal head injuries from flying shrapnel as well as falling dirt and debris. Hence, the steel helmet was born and the Brodie Helmet conceived shortly thereafter in 1915, followed by the American M1917. My study will explore the when and why the steel helmet was needed, government involvement, Fordist mass production and the connection to Philadelphia. In this paper, I will argue that the Brodie Helmet technology was engineered because of the significant rise in WWI’s lethal head injuries, the ease and speed of production and as a response to the ongoing cycle of the need for increased protection from the more lethal modernized weaponry of war. World War I’s origins stem from the tensions between European countries as to who would control Eastern Europe including the Balkan Peninsula. This tension made necessary for certain nations to form alliances and secret treaties. The Central Powers were composed of Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Germany, and the Triple Entente was composed of Britain, Russia, and France. Most felt war was inevitable due to their deep-seated economic, political, and territorial issues. Alliances were psychologically prepared to go to war to solve grievances, but most were not prepared to be dragged into a war so prolonged, worldwide and destructive on a scale never before seen (Westwell). The actual spark was the barely noticed June 28, 1914 assassination of Austria-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo. The assassination was carried out by Serbian nationalists. The Foreign Minister of Austria-Hungary saw the assassination as an opportunity to show Serbia a lesson, giving Serbia an ultimatum for reparations it never intended to keep and on July 26, 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, which in turn caused secret alliances to declare war. In less than one month, Europe’s great powers were dragged into a conflict of global proportions (Westwell). As the war waged on for 3 years, the United States kept a neutral position. The United States was working through its own social and economic issues and did not want to be dragged into someone else’s war. This stance was tested when German submarines begun sinking American and any ships believed to be supplying the Allies. The final straw was the infamous “Zimmerman Telegram” which swayed American opinion. In the intercepted telegram, Germany was to make an alliance with Mexico against the United States and in return Mexico would receive financial gains and their lost territories of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The United States declared war against Germany and entered World War I on April 6, 1917. WWI utilized trench warfare which demanded a whole new range of fighting skills and lethal weaponry. Troops required less cumbersome weapons and those more lethal at close range as opposed to rifles and bayonets. One of the most important weapons was the grenade, because it allowed the grenade to be thrown without exposing oneself to fire. The German stick grenade and the British Mills bomb along with handmade versions made by soldiers at the front, made for lethal injuries especially of the head and abdomen due to direct contact and then the shrapnel or falling debris. Another lethal weapon developed and began use in WWI was the flamethrower. Germany was premiere in the use of flamethrowers, but France had a stronger revision. The flamethrower was a cumbersome weapon which was more useful as a lethal defense weapon than an offensive one. When used offensively it had more of a psychological effect, because as the flamethrower closed in, it was immediately targeted by the enemy. British tanks at first terrified the Germans and soldiers initially fled, but Germany developed effective ways to combat tanks. Germans dug wider trenches to be anti-tank ditches and used artillery which was the biggest tank destroyer, followed by development of anti-tank rifles and specialized bullets that could penetrate the armor plates of tanks. Rifles, bayonets and machine guns were weapons of choice in longer distance warfare but were not as effective in trench warfare until the Germans introduced the world’s first submachine gun (Bergmann Maschenpistole 18/1). This sub-machine gun was ideal for trench fighting because of being light weight which made it perfect for attacks or raids. The Allies were so concerned over its lethality, a “clause in the Treaty of Versailles prohibiting its manufacture” was added (Westwell). Heavy field artillery and mortars were types of weapons which also proved to be lethal for trench warfare. As seen with grenades, artillery and mortars could be launched from a distance and although could be less accurate, proved not only lethal from direct contact but from shrapnel and falling debris. WWI was also fought at sea, seeing its share of lethal injuries caused by modernized weaponry. All of these weapons developed during WWI increased the lethality of combat. Due to the very nature of trench warfare, a soldier’s best or only view point was to raise the head above the trench, thus the head became a target for enemy fire, and hence WWI saw a significant rise in lethal head injuries. Trench warfare in WWI saw a 12.5% fatality rate as compared to 5% in the Second Boer War and 4.5% in WW2. WWI was prior to the discovery of antibiotics and had extreme unsanitary conditions. Body fatality rates were 15% leg; 25% arm; 50% head and 99% abdomen. 75% of wounds came from shell fire which is more traumatic than a gunshot wound. Shell fire added dirt and debris into wounds causing more infections and a soldier to be three times more likely to die from a shell wound than a gunshot wound. Head injury fatalities were not only caused from direct fire or shrapnel but from concussions as well. WWI soldiers needed increased head protection form the increased lethality of weapons and head injuries (History). Iron helmets as head protection were seen as far back in time as the Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. These defensive head coverings were one of the most universal forms of armor and protected against arrows, spears, swords, and other weapons. Through the centuries numerous variations of the metal helmet evolved until the 18th and 19th century when due to the increased effectiveness of firearms and the decrease in the usage of spears and swords, metal helmets disappeared (History). Prior to 1914 and the first year of WWI, most soldiers wore cloth head coverings. American soldiers wore felt M1912 service or “campaign” hats for protection which were adequate for the types of limited conflict the United States had seen in the Philippines and Cuba, but a soft hat was useless in the trenches of WWI. (M1917). Remembering the French soldier saved by wearing his food bowl on his head, the metal helmet reappeared. In 1915, the French Army first introduced a steel bowl shaped helmet worn under cloth coverings followed by the Model 1915 Adrian helmet. The British having also discovered a need for steel helmets due to the increased lethal head injuries caused by advanced weaponry, found the Adrian helmet not strong enough and too complex for swift manufacturing. Britain’s John L. Brodie design patent in 1915, offered stronger protection and ease of production because it was constructed from a single thick sheet of steel (Brodie). It was first used by British troops in battle in April, 1916 and then by many countries including the U.S. when they entered the war in 1917. It was also known as the shrapnel helmet, Doughboy, and the Tommy helmet. When the United States entered World War I in 1917, it used the Brodie helmet because of the immediate availability of 400,000 ready made helmets from England, its simplicity in manufacture and its superior ballistic properties (Reynosa). Britain and France had well developed war industries but were short on man power due to heavy casualties. On the other hand, the United States had huge numbers of manpower, but lacked military equipment industry. Due to the necessity of speed, Britain and France supplied the equipment to the United States land and air forces. The U.S. Navy was already equipped for war. Not needing equipment allowed more room for men and more than two million men crossed the North Atlantic in 1917-18. The U.S. infantry were given the British Brodie helmet and the segregated African- American troops assigned to the French wore the Adrian helmet (Westwell). United States quickly adopted and began production with minor modifications to the Brodie helmet and re-named it the M1917. The American version was a single bowl stamped out of a single piece of 13% manganese alloy. The British used only 12%; hence, the American M1917 offered more protection. The rim was spot welded to the edge of the steel bowl. The ends butted as opposed to lapped like the British. Riveted to the steel bowl were 2 flexible guiding loops for the chin strap loop which were secured by solid versus the British split rivets. Also riveted to the helmet was a lining made up of cotton twine which evenly distributed the weight of the two pound helmet and any force upon it. The netting and rubber around the edge kept the helmet away for the head, so that even a large dent should not reach the head. The mesh was also covered with black oil cloth and felt (Reynosa). Steel was rolled by the American Sheet and Tin Plate Co.. The pressing and stamping of the M1917 was done in seven different American cities including the Edward G. Budd Manufacturing Co. in Philadelphia, PA.. Budd Co. produced the majority of helmets at over 1,150,775. The helmets and linings were delivered to Ford Motor Co. Philadelphia, PA. where all steel helmets were painted, assembled and shipped. The process was done under the Fordist mass production manufacturing philosophy. This philosophy’s aim was to achieve higher productivity by standardizing the output using assembly lines and breaking work down into unskilled tasks with a focus on minimization of costs as opposed to maximum profits. Per Ford “no profit was to accrue” from the production of the steel helmets. Ford was able to get the price of each helmet down to $.1036 by adding an air compression package system able to pack 25 helmets in 30 seconds compared to nine minutes by human hands. This allowed an upwards of 75,000 helmets to be made and shipped per day (Philadelphia). The Brodie/M1917 was able to be produced with ease and speed. Besides assigning government contracts, the government agency known as The Ordinance Department physically oversaw the manufacturing, production and shipment of the steel helmets. From selection of sites, quality control and oversight of costs and personnel, the government was directly involved. Ordinance department personnel chose 25 steel helmets off the assembly line per shift to personally test via makeshift war like conditions such as gunfire (Doughboy). After the war, the Brodie helmet continued to be used with modifications of an improved liner and chin strap until 1940 when it was replaced by the British Army and modified it into the Mark II. The Brodie saw continued usage by police, the fire brigade and air raid wardens during WWII and a deeper version made of ordinary mild steel was available for civilian use. The U.S. Army used the M1917 until 1942 with minor modifications also of the liners and chin straps until it was replaced by the M1 helmet in 1942. Brodie design helmets can still be seen today such as “tribal levis in Pakistan and until recently by the Israeli civil defense forces” (Brodie Helmet). The Brodie helmet design has had one of the longest runs of military use in military history. The Brodie steel helmet was clearly engineered because of the need for increased protection from the more modernized and lethal weaponry of World War I, the significant rise in lethal head injuries and the ease and speed of production. As seen by the historical change in man’s lethal WWI warfare, the technology of Brodie’s helmet was driven by the social, political, and economic times. The world was at war utilizing the new technologies of killing which required new technologies of protection. Because the need occurred after the war had started and resources were being depleted, the technology needed to be economical and fast. The Brodie steel helmet technology met all those needs. What does this say about society- the never ending cycle of the newly developed technology of lethal weaponry requiring a newly developed technology of protection. This is clearly seen here with the Brodie steel helmet. The helmet was a response to man’s perpetual basic need to conquer. It also shows how different cultures and countries could rapidly develop and mass produce a new technology together on a world or global stage. The Brodie helmet was more than just a new technology, it was an expression of man and his society.  __ Bibliography __ Primary: Brodie, John Leopold. “An improved helmet or head shield”. EP Patent GB191511803. August 10, 1916. __ Philadelphia in the World War, 1914-1919 __ (New York: Wynkoop Hallenbeck Crawford Co., 1922) Secondary: Beller, Susan Provost, __The Doughboys Over There: Soldiering in World War I__ (Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books, 2007) “Doughboy's Iron Lid”. < http://www.workshopoftheworld.com/resources/doughboy.html> Hoff, Thomas A., __U.S. Doughboy 1916-1919__ (Great Britain: Osprey Publishing, 2005) “M1917 Steel Trench Helmet”. < http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m1917-helmet.htm> Reynosa, Mark A., __ U.S. Combat Helmets of the 20th Century __ (Schiffer Publishing, 1997) < http://www.worldwar1.com/dbc/helmet17.htm> Westwell, Ian. __The Ultimate Illustrated History of World War I__ (London: Hermes House, 2008) Reference: “Brodie Helmet”. < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodie_helmet> “ History of the Helmet”. < http://www.armadilloarmory.com/hxhelmet.htm> “ Trench warfare”. < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trench_warfare>